The Aegean Sea and the land border between Greece and Turkey along the Evros River have long been spaces of migration, shaping the histories of both countries. While contemporary migration flows between the two countries are often discussed in relation to EU border policies and broader geopolitical tensions, they must also be understood within a historical context. One of the most significant events shaping migration in this region was the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, a state-imposed displacement that continues to influence migration dynamics today.

Looking Back at History

The aftermath of the First World War and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century left millions displaced in Europe and the Middle East, forcing the international community to confront a large-scale refugee crisis. Under the principle of self-determination, European leaders sought to align state borders in the former Ottoman Empire’s territories with national identities, believing that one of the causes of the First World War had been the substantial differences between ethnic minorities within states. This decision to draw up new state borders led to forced displacements and population exchanges, with the aim of achieving national homogeneity—a strategy that, according to historian Hobsbawm, paved the way for ethnic cleansing and mass expulsions in the following decades.

One major instance was the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, formalised under the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. After Greece’s military defeat in Anatolia, 1.3 million Greek Orthodox Christians were expelled to Greece, while 400,000 Muslims living in Greece were sent to Turkey. The exchange, intended to create ethnically homogeneous states, caused immense human suffering, economic upheaval, and the loss of centuries-old communities. In Greece, the arrival of refugees from Anatolia reshaped cities such as Thessaloniki and Athens, while in Turkey, the departure of Greek populations altered the social and economic fabric of coastal regions. This decision also had the long-term effect of setting a precedent for state-managed resettlement schemes of populations, a logic that continues to influence contemporary migration governance.

Contemporary Migration Between Greece and Turkey

Today, Greece and Turkey remain central to European migration movements, but the flows are markedly different. Instead of state-driven population transfers, the region now sees migration driven by conflict, economic hardship, and geopolitical instability in neighbouring states. Since the early 2010s, Turkey has become a key transit country for asylum seekers, particularly from Syria, Afghanistan, and countries in sub-Saharan Africa, attempting to reach the European Union via Greece. In 2015 alone, over one million people arrived in Europe, with 80% landing in Greece. Many of these individuals, fleeing war and persecution, required urgent humanitarian assistance, including medical aid and psychosocial support. However, the EU’s fractured asylum system left Greece disproportionately responsible for handling the humanitarian crisis.

In response, the EU prioritised migration containment over long-term solutions. The 2016 EU-Turkey statement sought to curb irregular migration by returning asylum seekers to Turkey in exchange for financial support and resettlement commitments. This agreement effectively reintroduced a form of “exchange,” whereby asylum seekers arriving irregularly in Greece from Turkey could be returned to Turkey, while the EU committed to resettling a limited number of Syrian refugees from Turkey to EU member states. However, the deal has been heavily criticised for its impact on human rights of refugees and for failing to address the root causes of displacement, prioritising deterrence over humanitarian protection.

Continuities and Ruptures: Comparing Past and Present Migration 

The discourse of protecting national identity and sovereignty that justified the population exchange in 1923 echoes modern debates on border security and migration control. While the large-scale forced displacement of populations in 1923 was framed as a permanent solution to interethnic tensions, today’s policies operate through mechanisms that, while less explicit, still rely on forced transfers. The EU-Turkey Statement effectively institutionalized a contemporary form of population exchange, as asylum seekers arriving irregularly in Greece are sent back to Turkey, while the EU selectively resettles a limited number of refugees. Although the process now is framed as voluntary, critics argue that the emphasis on deterrence and externalization of responsibility continues to undermine genuine protection for asylum seekers. 

While international human rights law, including the 1951 Refugee Convention, has established protections that were absent a century ago, their implementation remains inconsistent. Reports of illegal pushbacks, arbitrary detention, inadequate reception centres, and violent border enforcement raise concerns about the erosion of refugee rights and the increasing securitisation of migration policies.

Even efforts for inclusion have been lessened. The shift in NGO presence has significantly impacted refugee support in northern Greece. Multiple organisations used to operate in the Nea Kavala camp, in Northern Greece but today, only Open Cultural Center remains, providing education and cultural activities through language courses, computer classes, a CV hub, children’s classes, and bike rentals. Unlike before, no organisations are stationed inside the camp itself, with OCC operating from outside in the closest town of Polykastro. A similar situation can be observed in the whole country: many refugees in Nea Kavala were previously on the Aegean islands, having arrived through Turkey before being transferred due to overcapacity in those regions.

The humanitarian situation remains dire, with overcrowded reception centres and mounting concerns over the treatment of asylum seekers. The recently adopted EU Pact on Migration and Asylum continues this trend, focusing on limiting arrivals rather than ensuring pathways to safety, humane reception, and integration.

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Bibliography

• Clark B., Twice A Stranger: How Mass Expulsion Forged Modern Greece and Turkey. Granta, 2006.
• Hirschon R., Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange between Greece and Turkey, Berghahn Books, 2003.
• Hobsbawm, E. Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge University Press, 1992
• Kontogiorgi E., Population Exchange in Greek Macedonia: The Rural Settlement of Refugees 1922-1930, Oxford University Press, 2006.
• European Commission, Implementing the EU-Turkey Agreement – Questions and Answers, 20 April 2016, (visited on 22 March 2025). 
• European Commission, Migration management in Greece, 15 March 2024, (visited on 22 March 2025). 
• European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE), Greece: New Report Confirms the Cycle of Violence and Abuse at Greek Borders as Court Rejects Charges of Facilitation of Illegal Entry for Refugees, More Scrutiny over Hellenic Coast Guard Role in Pylos Tragedy, 7 November 2023, (visited on 22 March 2025). 
• Hellenic Republic – Ministry of Migration & Asylum, Reception and Identification Service, (visited on 22 March 2025).
• International Rescue Committee, Greece, (visited on 22 March 2025).